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Marcus Aurelius: Meditations (Unabridged), Edited by William Kaufman. NOTE: We have 75,000 books in our library, almost 10,000 different titles. Odds are we have other copies of this same title in varying conditions, some less expensive, some better condition. We might also have different editions as well (some paperback, some hardcover, oftentimes international editions). If you don’t see what you want, please contact us and ask. We’re happy to send you a summary of the differing conditions and prices we may have for the same title. DESCRIPTION: Softcover: 99 pages. Publisher: Dover Publications, Inc; (1997). Dimensions: 8¼ x 5½ inches; ½ pound. One of the world’s most famous and influential books, “Meditations”, by the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 A.D.), incorporates the stoic percepts he used to cope with his life as a warrior and administrator of an empire. Ascending to the imperial throne in 161 AD, Aurelius found his reign beset by natural disasters and war. In the wake of these challenges, he set down a series of private reflections, outlining a philosophy of commitment to virtue above pleasure and tranquility above happiness. Reflecting the emperor’s own noble and self-sacrificing code of conduct, this eloquent and moving work draws and enriches the tradition of Stoicism, which stressed the search for inner peace and ethical certainty in an apparently chaotic world. Serenity was to be achieved by emulating in one’s personal conduct the underlying orderliness and lawfulness of nature. And in the face of the inevitable pain, loss, and death; the suffering at the core of life, Aurelius counsels stoic detachment from the things that are beyond one’s control, and a focus on one’s own will and perception. Presented here in a specially modernized version of this classic George Long translation, this updated and revised edition is easily accessible to contemporary readers. It not only provides a fascinating glimpse into the mind and personality of a highly principled Roman of the second century, but also offers today’s readers a practical and inspirational guide to the challenges of everyday life. CONDITION: NEW. New oversized softcover. Dover Publications (1997) 112 pages. Unblemished, unmarked, pristine in every respect. Satisfaction unconditionally guaranteed. In stock, ready to ship. No disappointments, no excuses. PROMPT SHIPPING! HEAVILY PADDED, DAMAGE-FREE PACKAGING! Meticulous and accurate descriptions! Selling rare and out-of-print ancient history books on-line since 1997. We accept returns for any reason within 30 days! #1964. PLEASE SEE IMAGES BELOW FOR SAMPLE PAGES FROM INSIDE OF BOOK. PLEASE SEE PUBLISHER, PROFESSIONAL, AND READER REVIEWS BELOW. PUBLISHER REVIEW: REVIEW: Marcus Aurelius reigned from 161 AD to 180 AD, and was perhaps the only true philosopher-king in the history of the world. In his “Meditations”, a series of notes to himself, he formulated his pantheist Stoic beliefs with a passionate religious conviction. The “Meditations” were written day by day, in every situation including war. They often appear to be responses to the stress of supreme power, from the imminent fear of death in battle, to the trials of everyday life. PROFESSIONAL REVIEWS: REVIEW: One measure, perhaps, of a book’s worth, is its intergenerational pliancy. Do new readers acquire it and interpret it afresh down through the ages? The “Meditations” of Marcus Aurelius, by that standard, is very worthwhile, indeed. Its most recent incarnation, as a “self-help” book, is not only valid, but may be close to the author’s intent. The book, sometimes fondly referred to as a “haphazard set of notes”, is indicative of the role of philosophy among the ancients in that it is expected to provide a ‘design for living. And it does, both aphoristically (“Think of yourself as dead. You have lived your life. Now take what’s left and live it properly.”) and rhetorically (“What is it in ourselves that we should prize?”). Whether these,and other entries (“Enough of this wretched, whining monkey life.”) sound life-changing or like entries in a teenager’s diary is up to the individual reader, as it should be. The introduction, which sketches the life of Marcus Aurelius (emperor of Rome A.D. 161-180 and co-star of Hollywood’s “Gladiator”) as well as the basic tenets of stoicism, is accessible and jaunty. REVIEW: Marcus Aurelius ruled Rome from AD 161 to 180, and is one of the few emperors whose writings have outlasted his practical achievements. Written on campaign late in his life, his Meditations reveal a clear-headed man, disillusioned with the institutions and citizens of the Empire. Both a historical document and a spiritual diary, the book’s vivid imagery and pungent epigrams have prompted comparisons with Pascal’s “Pensées” and the book of Ecclesiastes. REVIEW: Few ancient works have been as influential as the “Meditations” of Marcus Aurelius, philosopher and emperor of Rome (A.D. 161–180). A series of spiritual exercises filled with wisdom, practical guidance, and profound understanding of human behavior, it remains one of the greatest works of spiritual and ethical reflection ever written. REVIEW: A new translation of the philosophical journey that has inspired luminaries from Matthew Arnold to Bill Clinton Written by an intellectual Roman Emperor (Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus, 121–180 A.D., became joint emperor in 161 with adoptive brother Lucius Verus, and ruled alone from 169), the “Meditations” offer a wide range of spiritual reflections developed as the leader struggled to understand himself and the universe. Marcus Aurelius covers topics as diverse as the question of virtue, human rationality, the nature of the gods, and his own emotions, spanning from doubt and despair to conviction and exaltation. REVIEW: Stirring reflections on the human condition from a warrior and emperor provide a fascinating glimpse into the mind and personality of a highly principled Roman of the second century. Recognizing that suffering is at the core of life, he counsels stoic detachment in the face of inevitable pain and loss. REVIEW: A remarkably straightforward and readable translation of the passing thoughts, maxims, and musings of a man by nature a saint and sage, by profession an emperor and warrior. “Meditations” is unaffected by time and offers plenty of wisdom. READER REVIEWS: REVIEW: Timeless wisdom for a weary world! “Begin each day by telling yourself: Today I shall be meeting with interference, ingratitude, insolence, disloyalty, ill will, and selfishness-all of them due to the offenders’ ignorance of what is good or evil. But for my part I have long perceived the nature of good and its nobility, the nature of evil and its meanness, and also the nature of the culprit himself, who is my brother; therefore none of those things can injure me, for nobody can implicate me in what is degrading”. This selection from “Meditations” captures so much of the essence of this incredibly powerful book. Marcus Aurelius at times sounds more like the Buddha, Lao Tzu, Hesiod, or James Allen than he does his Stoic forerunners. Proof once again that true wisdom resides in every man’s heart and mind and transcends the boundaries of time, place, ethnicity,and doctrine. The job of the philosopher is to reintroduce his pupils to themselves, and once the self is realized, the reality of the universe becomes much clearer (“evil” derives from delusions) and the temptations of excess and the fears of deprivation become less powerful. These are true words to live by, more so now than they have ever been before. Happiness can be found in simplicity; hard work does pay off; the cooler head always prevails; immoderate pleasures can kill, and fear is often unfounded. Marcus, like Buddha, was born in the lap of luxury, but he was destined to hold a position in society for which he was not well suited by virtue of his sensitive and studious nature: the ruler of an ancient and corrupt civilization that dominated most of the known world. “Meditations” is Marcus’s attempt to cope with a life and a job that he never really wanted. Thankfully, we can apply Marcus’s self conversation to the trials and tribulations of everyday life (the same can not be said for most other volumes of Greco-Roman philosophy, and this is especially the case with the over dogmatic Plato). I urge you to read this. Once you do, I guarantee you will read it over and over again and it will take its place on your list of personal, life changing favorites. One last thought: keep in mind that Marcus was a pagan and don’t let the fact that Bill Clinton enjoyed the book dissuade you from buying it. REVIEW: The musings of Marcus Aurelius can be seen to be intrinsic insights into the life a emperor, Roman, and a man. A quintessential example of stoicism and as true today as it was two thousand years ago. Beautiful in its admissions and metaphors, it portrays a wonderful insight into the fact that man hasn’t changed at all. Although, it can not be considered to be an easy read, it is well worth the effort because it is not supposed to be easy, it is supposed to make you consider your life. As such it is probably the best self-help book on the market. Beautiful and moving, definitely worth a look at. It wasn’t saved by Byzantium’s scholars for no reason. If you desire to master pain unroll this book and read with care, and in it find abundantly a knowledge of the things that are, those that have been, and those to come, and know as well that joy and grief are nothing more than empty smoke. REVIEW: If you are at all interested in the history of philosophical or theological thought, then you will want to acquaint yourself with the writings of Marcus Aurelius. In this work addressed to himself (he originally entitled it “To Myself” and it later came to be known as the “Meditations”) he distills the essence of Stoicism, one of the most important and influential schools of classical philosophy. This translation combines elegance and clarity, and the introduction is excellent. Stoicism likely formed the rational basis for the fledgling Christian theology. (Interestingly, there is one, rather disparaging, reference to Christians in the text, which I suppose illustrates how significant the movement had become, a century after the death of its founder. Many scholars believe this to be an interpolation by a later author). Indeed, the similarity of this work to the late medieval “The Imitation of Christ” is striking. Part of the fascination of “Meditations” lies, of course, in the fact that Marcus was Emperor of Rome, the greatest power on Earth at that time. We thus get an insight into the mind of an important historical character. This also means that much of what occupied him is hardly relevant to you or me. How many of us are plagued with sycophantic courtiers, or need to remind ourselves that the adulation of the mob may be short-lived? Yet it is clear that, despite all his power and privilege, Marcus was a troubled and pensive soul. One might say that “Meditations” is Stoicism for monarchs, whereas “The Imitation” is Stoicism for monks. If you enjoy one of those books, the chances are you will enjoy the other. REVIEW: The whole point of meditation is to think; at least that’s what I think Aurelius’ meditations were about (when he wrote them that is) and that’s certainly why I bought the book. I’m not a philosophy student or “qualified philosopher” but I think the book is great if you want to “think a little more about the bigger picture” and you’re searching for something within yourself. It’s incredible how someone circa 120-180 A.D. could have felt and saw things sometimes, somewhat, the way I do. ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND: Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius: Recently brought to fame as the aging Emperor of Hollywood’s “Gladiator”, Marcus Annius Verus was of Spanish origin (Marcus’ family originated in Ucubi, a small town southeast of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica) but born in Rome itself in A.D. 121. He was Roman emperor from 161 to his death in 180 A.D. He ruled with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus as co-emperor from 161 until Lucius’ death in 169 A.D. He was the last of the “Five Good Emperors”, also known as “the adoptive emperors”, and is also considered one of the most important of the ancient Stoic philosophers. Marcus Aurelius’ work Meditations, written in Greek while on campaign between 170 and 180, is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. Indeed it was Marcus’ character which has made him a unique figure in Roman history, since he was the first emperor whose life was molded by, and devoted to, philosophy. Marcus was the scion of a distinguished family of Spanish origin, son of Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla, and nephew of Faustina, the wife of the Emperor Antoninus Pius. His grandfather served as Roman Consul three times, a rare distinction in the entire history of the principate, and also served Emperor Hadrian as city prefect. The Great Roman Emperor Hadrian adopted both future emperors Marcus Aurelius and Antoninus Pius before his death, recognizing the leadership qualities of both men, making the two adoptive brothers. After the death of Emperor Hadrian in 138 A.D., the older Antoninus Pius adopted Marcus Aurelius (his already adoptive brother) as his son, at which time he took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus. In 139 A.D. Emperor Antoninus Pius elevated his adopted brother/son Aurelius to the rank of Caesar, and betrothed him to his daughter, Faustina Junior. Faustina and Marcus Aurelius were married in A.D. 145. Faustina and Aurelis had their first child the following year, and Faustina was made Augusta. Faustina and Aurelius were a very close couple. They were blessed with an abundance of children (although many unfortunately died after only a few years, and of fourteen children, only four daughters and one son outlived their father), amongst whom were the future emperor Commodus and the future empress Lucilla. Caesar Marcus Aurelius became a Tribune of the People in 147 A.D. (Tribunicia Potestas), and upon the death of Antoninus Pius in A.D. 161, smoothly ascended to the throne of the Roman Empire. Aurelius’s adoptive brother Lucius Verus had also been adopted by Antoninus Pius, and upon the death of Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius graciously made Lucius Verus Co-Emperor (this was to be the very first time Rome would be ruled by co-emperors), and Lucius was betrothed to Marcus Aurelius’s daughter, Lucilla, whom he married in A.D. 164. Marcus Aurelius’s reign was marked by many frontier wars, and the legions returning from the Parthian War in 166 A.D. brought with them a plague which spread throughout the empire, causing an estimated 5 million Roman deaths and leaving many areas virtually depopulated. Emperor Aurelius spent much of the latter part of his reign campaigning against Germanic Quadi, Marcomanni, and Vandal tribes on the Danube frontier from the period of about 167 A.D. all the way through his death in 180 A.D. As was his elder adopted brother, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius was a careful, generous, and conscientious ruler and is most remembered for his devotion to philosophy and his literary work of art, “Meditations”, which he had written while campaigning at the Danube frontier. It has been said of Marcus Aurelis that, “in the evening of Rome’s greatness her ruler personified the virtues that had been Rome’s glory”. Ancient accounts of Marcus Aurelius describe him as a solemn child from the very beginning; and as soon as he passed beyond the age when children are brought up under the care of nurses, he was handed over to advanced instructors and attained a knowledge of philosophy and oratory. Two of his Greek tutors, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus, were the most esteemed orators of the day. With regards to his philosophical education, he received instruction from Apollonius of Chalcedon, the Stoic; and such was his enthusiasm for this school of philosophy that even after he became a member of the imperial family, he still went to Apollonius’ residence for instruction. In addition, he attended the lectures of Sextus of Chaeronea, the nephew of Plutarch. Aurelius studied jurisprudence as well, and attended schools of rhetoric. He studied literature under Alexander of Cotiaeum, who was a major littérateur in the Roman world and the leading Homeric scholar of his day. Alexander’s influence; an emphasis on matter over style, on careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation, is detectable in Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations. Aurelius’ philosophical stoicism extended to financial affairs as well. Much of what he inherited from deceased family patriarchs and matriarchs he passed on to more “needy” heirs within the extended family, often distant cousins, nieces, nephews, etc. For example, when his mother asked him to give his sister part of the fortune left him by his father, he replied that he was content with the fortune of his grandfather and relinquished all of the fortune left him by his father, further declaring that if she wished, his mother might leave her own estate to his sister in its entirety, in order that the sister might not be poorer than her husband. As a young adult Aurelius was also interested in painting, was also fond of boxing and wrestling and running and fowling, played ball very skillfully, and hunted well. But it was his overwhelming devotion to philosophy which contributed to a prematurely serious and dignified geniality. When, after the death of Lucius Caesar, Hadrian looked about for a successor to the throne, Marcus did not seem suitable, being at the time but eighteen years of age; and so Hadrian chose for adoption Antoninus Pius, the uncle-in-law of Marcus, with the provision that Pius should in turn adopt Marcus and that Marcus should adopt Lucius Commodus. When Aurelius discovered that Hadrian had adopted him as his (second-in-line) heir apparent, he was appalled rather than overjoyed, and when told to move to the private home of Hadrian, reluctantly departed from his mother’s villa. When the members of his household asked him why he was sorry to receive royal adoption, he enumerated to them the evil things that sovereignty involved. Nonetheless Aurelius busied himself with many public duties and offices so that he might gain the experience necessary to rule Rome well. At the same time he continued his studies eagerly. Such became his influence with Emperor Antoninus Pius that the Emperor was never quick to promote anyone without first soliciting the advice of Aurelius. Thus when Antoninus Pius saw that the end of his life was drawing near, having summoned his friends and prefects, he commended Marcus to them all and formally named him as his successor. Being forced by the senate to assume the government of the state after the death of Pius, over the initial objections of the Senate, Marcus insisting upon his (adoptive) brother becoming co-emperor, bestowing on him the titles Caesar and Augustus. After the two adoptive brothers assumed the imperial power, it was commented upon by their contemporaries that the two emperors acted in so democratic a manner that no one missed the lenient ways of Pius. As well as performing the administrative and executive duties of co-emperor, Marcus also buried himself in his studies of philosophy, at the same time cultivating the good-will of and endearing himself to the citizens of Rome. However a quiet philosophical existence was not to be Marcus Aurelius’s reward, as his reign was almost immediately beset by a myriad of calamities both of natural and man-made origin. There was a terrible flood of the Tiber River which ran through Rome. Most of Rome was flooded, most of the area’s livestock drowned, and there resulted a widespread famine. Then came war with the Parthians when in 161 A.D., shortly after the death of Antoninus Pius, the Parthians invaded Roman Armenia, and massacred the Roman Legion that tried to defend the territory. The Parthians next attacked the Roman Legions based in Syria, and won a major battle there as well. Another war was threatening in Britain, and Germanic tribes, particularly the Chattti, invaded Germania. Then early in 166 A.D., the Marcomanni and Quadi tribes crossed the Danube in huge numbers, penetrated the intervening provinces, and entered Italy. The culmination of their onslaught was a siege of Aquileia. At the very same time the Sarmatians attacked the Roman Empire further East on the Danube. The effect upon the inhabitants of the peninsula was frightful. This was the first invasion of Italy since the late second century B.C. Nonetheless despite the difficulties and pressures he faced, Marcus Aurelius’s reign as emperor was notable or the respect he paid to the Roman Senate, including his attendance of Senate sessions even when he had no measure to propose; as well as his efforts to improve the Roman judicial system. Roman jurists of the time called him “an emperor most skilled in the law” and “a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor”. Marcus Aurelius demonstrated particular interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councilors. His reign was also noted for its lack of extravagance, for its public frugality, and for its expansion of public programs designed to aid the poor. In times of famine rural families were assisted with food supplies distributed from the stores within the city of Rome. Streets and highways were well maintained, the grain supply from Africa and Egypt was carefully managed, and he insured that the provinces were not disproportionately burdened with taxes and levies. His rule was reputed as firm but reasonable. While the Parthian war was still in progress, Marcus Aurelius made every effort to delay the inevitable breakout of war with the German Marcomannic through negotiations, trying to ensure that the Legionary armies would not have to wage war on two fronts simultaneously, particularly since at the time since Rome Was already burdened by famine and a widespread plaque (as described earlier, brought back by the Legionary Armies who had vanquished the Parthians). When the Maromannic wars drained the treasury and it seemed inevitable that he would have to impose new taxes, Aurelian instead auction off both imperial furnishings and personal assets, including his wife’s silken gold-embroidered robes and jewels to avoid having to raise taxes. Marcus ruled wisely and benevolently in virtually every respect for eighteen years. His greatest disappointments were unfortunately with regards to family matters. As Marcus Aurelius’ wife, Faustina’s reputation suffered much abuse. She was accused of employing poison and murder in political intrigues, as well as being free with her favors with gladiators, sailors, and also men of rank even within Aurelius’ administration. Yet Marcus trusted her implicitly and defended her vigorously. Faustina accompanied her husband during his numerous campaigns in the field, attempting to make a home out of the army camp. She was loved and revered by the Roman soldiers, who called her “Matri Castrorum”, or, “Mother of the Camp”. She was with Aurelius in camp at Halala in southern Cappadocia in the winter of 175 when she died in an accident. Marcus dedicated a temple to her honor and had the name of the city changed to Faustinopolis. As had Aurelius’s predecessor and adopted brother Antoninus Pius done for his wife, for Faustina Senior; Marcus Aurelis commissioned an extensive series commemorating the life of his wife. Some of the most beautiful portraits of contemporary Roman women are those found on the coins of Faustina the Younger. Mercifully Marcus Aurelius only had four years in his own life upon the death of his beloved wife, and passed away on March 17, 180 A.D., at which time he was immediately deified. This brings us to Marcus Aurelius’s second disappointment, and assuredly his single greatest failing as an emperor. Rather than to continue the tradition of adopting a worthy heir to the throne, instead he named his natural son, Commodus, Caesar and heir presumptive. Commodus was a political and military outsider, as well as an extreme egotist with neurotic problems. And so Commodus was not as much the benevolent ruler his father had been, but rather a frustrated gladiator. As emperor Commodus fought almost a thousand public gladiatorial bouts. For the last three years of his life Marcus Aurelius had waged war with the Marcomanni, the Hermunduri, the Sarmatians, and the Quadi. He had earlier been on the verge of defeating them in 175 A.D. when his efforts were interrupted by the need to put down a usurper, a distinguished general and governor of Syria. After the revolt had been put down, Marcus Aurelius returned to conclude the wars against the Germanic barbarian tribes. Many historians believe that had he lived a year longer, these regions would have been fully conquered and made into provinces, Sarmatia and Marcomannia (which would have included today’s Bohemia and Hungary). Two days before his death, it is said, he summoned his friends and confessed that he thought poorly of his son, adding that it grieved him exceedingly to leave such a son behind him, for already Commodus had made it clear that he was base and cruel. It was said by some of his friends that Aurelius foresaw that after his death Commodus would turn out as he actually did, and expressed the wish that his son might die, lest, as he himself said, he should become another Nero, Caligula, or Domitian. Nonetheless on his death bed Marcus called for his son (who had accompanied him on his campaigns against the Germanic tribes), and implored Commodus to pursue the war until victory, a victory already visible on the horizon. But Commodus was eager to return to the debaucheries of Rome and the ease and luxury of the imperial court and so after his father’s death, he negotiated a shameful peace agreement, essentially buying off the tribes with huge annual tributes. Never again was Rome to hold the upper hand in its dealings with the Germanic tribes beyond the now reestablished borders of the empire. The change from Marcus Aurelius to his son Commodus was a change of rulers that proved disastrous for people and empire. Cassius Dio, the great (ancient) Roman Historian (a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 A.D. in eighty books) called the succession a change from a golden kingdom to one of iron and rust. Many historians, including Cassius Dio, hold Marcus Aurelius’ death to have been the end of the “Pax Romana”. Marcus Aurelius was able to secure the succession for Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and made co-emperor in 177 A.D., though the choice may have been unknowingly unfortunate. This decision, which put an end to the fortunate series of “adoptive emperors”, was highly criticized by later historians. How much better it would have been if Marcus had had no son and had chosen a successor by adoption, so that the line of the five good emperors, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, could have been extended. It was not to be, and for that Marcus must accept some responsibility. Yet he was a man of ability and a sense of duty who sacrificed his own delights and interests to the well-being of the state. He was “capax imperii”, he did his best, and history has been kind to him. As Hamlet said to Horatio, when awaiting the appearance of the ghost of his father, “He was a man! Take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again.” Ancient Rome: One of the greatest civilizations of recorded history was the ancient Roman Empire. The Roman civilization, in relative terms the greatest military power in the history of the world, was founded in the 8th century (B.C.) on seven hills alongside Italy’s Tiber River. By the 4th Century (B.C.) the Romans were the dominant power on the Italian Peninsula, having defeated the Etruscans, Celts, Latins, and Greek Italian colonies. In the 3rd Century (B.C.) the Romans conquered Sicily, and in the following century defeated Carthage, and controlled Greece. Throughout the remainder of the 2nd Century (B.C.) the Roman Empire continued its gradual conquest of the Hellenistic (Greek Colonial) World by conquering Syria and Macedonia; and finally came to control Egypt and much of the Near East and Levant (Holy Land) in the 1st Century (B.C.). The pinnacle of Roman power was achieved in the 1st Century (A.D.) as Rome conquered much of Britain and Western Europe. At its peak, the Roman Empire stretched from Britain in the West, throughout most of Western, Central, and Eastern Europe, and into Asia Minor. For a brief time, the era of “Pax Romana”, a time of peace and consolidation reigned. Civilian emperors were the rule, and the culture flourished with a great deal of liberty enjoyed by the average Roman Citizen. However within 200 years the Roman Empire was in a state of steady decay, attacked by Germans, Goths, and Persians. The decline was temporarily halted by third century Emperor Diocletian. In the 4th Century (A.D.) the Roman Empire was split between East and West. The Great Emperor Constantine again managed to temporarily arrest the decay of the Empire, but within a hundred years after his death the Persians captured Mesopotamia, Vandals infiltrated Gaul and Spain, and the Goths even sacked Rome itself. Most historians date the end of the Western Roman Empire to 476 (A.D.) when Emperor Romulus Augustus was deposed. However the Eastern Roman Empire (The Byzantine Empire) survived until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 A.D. In the ancient world valuables such as coins and jewelry were commonly buried for safekeeping, and inevitably the owners would succumb to one of the many perils of the ancient world. Oftentimes the survivors of these individuals did not know where the valuables had been buried, and today, thousands of years later (occasionally massive) caches of coins and rings are still commonly uncovered throughout Europe and Asia Minor. Throughout history these treasures have been inadvertently discovered by farmers in their fields, uncovered by erosion, and the target of unsystematic searches by treasure seekers. With the introduction of metal detectors and other modern technologies to Eastern Europe in the past three or four decades, an amazing number of new finds are seeing the light of day thousands of years after they were originally hidden by their past owners. And with the liberalization of post-Soviet Eastern Europe in the 1990’s, significant new sources opened eager to share these ancient treasures. [AncientGifts]. Roman History: According to legend, Ancient Rome was founded by the two brothers, and demi-gods, Romulus and Remus, on 21 April 753 B.C. The legend claims that, in an argument over who would rule the city (or, in another version, where the city would be located) Romulus killed Remus and named the city after himself. This story of the founding of Rome is the best known but it is not the only one. Other legends claim the city was named after a woman, Roma, who traveled with Aeneas and the other survivors from Troy after that city fell. Upon landing on the banks of the Tiber River, Roma and the other women objected when the men wanted to move on. She led the women in the burning of the Trojan ships and so effectively stranded the Trojan survivors at the site which would eventually become Rome. Aeneas of Troy is featured in this legend and also, famously, in Virgil’s Aeneid, as a founder of Rome and the ancestor of Romulus and Remus, thus linking Rome with the grandeur and might which was once Troy. Still other theories concerning the name of the famous city suggest it came from Rumon, the ancient name for the Tiber River, and was simply a place-name given to the small trading centre established on its banks or that the name derived from an Etruscan word which could have designated one of their settlements. Originally a small town on the banks of the Tiber, Rome grew in size and strength, early on, through trade. The location of the city provided merchants with an easily navigable waterway on which to traffic their goods. The city was ruled by seven kings, from Romulus to Tarquin, as it grew in size and power. Greek culture and civilization, which came to Rome via Greek colonies to the south, provided the early Romans with a model on which to build their own culture. From the Greeks they borrowed literacy and religion as well as the fundamentals of architecture. The Etruscans, to the north, provided a model for trade and urban luxury. Etruria was also well situated for trade and the early Romans either learned the skills of trade from Etruscan example or were taught directly by the Etruscans who made incursions into the area around Rome sometime between 650 and 600 B.C. (although their influence was felt much earlier). The extent of the role the Etruscans played in the development of Roman culture and society is debated but there seems little doubt they had a significant impact at an early stage. From the start, the Romans showed a talent for borrowing and improving upon the skills and concepts of other cultures. The Kingdom of Rome grew rapidly from a trading town to a prosperous city between the 8th and 6th centuries B.C. When the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed in 509 B.C., his rival for power, Lucius Junius Brutus, reformed the system of government and established the Roman Republic. Though Rome owed its prosperity to trade in the early years, it was war which would make the city a powerful force in the ancient world. The wars with the North African city of Carthage (known as the Punic Wars, 264-146 B.C.) consolidated Rome’s power and helped the city grow in wealth and prestige. Rome and Carthage were rivals in trade in the Western Mediterranean and, with Carthage defeated, Rome held almost absolute dominance over the region; though there were still incursions by pirates which prevented complete Roman control of the sea. As the Republic of Rome grew in power and prestige, the city of Rome began to suffer from the effects of corruption, greed and the over-reliance on foreign slave labor. Gangs of unemployed Romans, put out of work by the influx of slaves brought in through territorial conquests, hired themselves out as thugs to do the bidding of whatever wealthy Senator would pay them. The wealthy elite of the city, the Patricians, became ever richer at the expense of the working lower class, the Plebeians. In the 2nd century B.C., the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, two Roman tribunes, led a movement for land reform and political reform in general. Though the brothers were both killed in this cause, their efforts did spur legislative reforms and the rampant corruption of the Senate was curtailed (or, at least, the Senators became more discreet in their corrupt activities). By the time of the First Triumvirate, both the city and the Republic of Rome were in full flourish. Even so, Rome found itself divided across class lines. The ruling class called themselves Optimates (the best men) while the lower classes, or those who sympathized with them, were known as the Populares (the people). These names were applied simply to those who held a certain political ideology; they were not strict political parties nor were all of the ruling class Optimates nor all of the lower classes Populares. In general, the Optimates held with traditional political and social values which favored the power of the Senate of Rome and the prestige and superiority of the ruling class. The Populares, again generally speaking, favored reform and democratization of the Roman Republic. These opposing ideologies would famously clash in the form of three men who would, unwittingly, bring about the end of the Roman Republic. Marcus Licinius Crassus and his political rival, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) joined with another, younger, politician, Gaius Julius Caesar, to form what modern historians call the First Triumvirate of Rome (though the Romans of the time never used that term, nor did the three men who comprised the triumvirate). Crassus and Pompey both held the Optimate political line while Caesar was a Populare. The three men were equally ambitious and, vying for power, were able to keep each other in check while helping to make Rome prosper. Crassus was the richest man in Rome and was corrupt to the point of forcing wealthy citizens to pay him `safety’ money. If the citizen paid, Crassus would not burn down that person’s house but, if no money was forthcoming, the fire would be lighted and Crassus would then charge a fee to send men to put the fire out. Although the motive behind the origin of these fire brigades was far from noble, Crassus did effectively create the first fire department which would, later, prove of great value to the city. Both Pompey and Caesar were great generals who, through their respective conquests, made Rome wealthy. Though the richest man in Rome (and, it has been argued, the richest in all of Roman history) Crassus longed for the same respect people accorded Pompey and Caesar for their military successes. In 53 B.C. he lead a sizeable force against the Parthians at Carrhae, in modern day Turkey, where he was killed when truce negotiations broke down. With Crassus gone, the First Triumvirate disintegrated and Pompey and Caesar declared war on each other. Pompey tried to eliminate his rival through legal means and had the Senate order Caesar to Rome to stand trial on assorted charges. Instead of returning to the city in humility to face these charges, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his army in 49 B.C. and entered Rome at the head of it. He refused to answer the charges and directed his focus toward eliminating Pompey as a rival. Pompey and Caesar met in battle at Pharsalus in Greece in 48 B.C. where Caesar’s numerically inferior force defeated Pompey’s greater one. Pompey himself fled to Egypt, expecting to find sanctuary there, but was assassinated upon his arrival. News of Caesar’s great victory against overwhelming numbers at Pharsalus had spread quickly and many former friends and allies of Pompey swiftly sided with Caesar, believing he was favored by the gods. Julius Caesar was now the most powerful man in Rome. He effectively ended the period of the Republic by having the Senate proclaim him dictator. His popularity among the people was enormous and his efforts to create a strong and stable central government meant increased prosperity for the city of Rome. He was assassinated by a group of Roman Senators in 44 B.C., however, precisely because of these achievements. The conspirators, Brutus and Cassius among them, seemed to fear that Caesar was becoming too powerful and that he might eventually abolish the Senate. Following his death, his right-hand man, and cousin, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) joined forces with Caesar’s nephew and heir, Gaius Octavius Thurinus (Octavian) and Caesar’s friend, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, to defeat the forces of Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Phillippi in 42 B.C. Octavian, Antony and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate of Rome but, as with the first, these men were also equally ambitious. Lepidus was effectively neutralized when Antony and Octavian agreed that he should have Hispania and Africa to rule over and thereby kept him from any power play in Rome. It was agreed that Octavian would rule Roman lands in the west and Antony in the east. Antony’s involvement with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, however, upset the balance Octavian had hoped to maintain and the two went to war. Antony and Cleopatra’s combined forces were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C. and both later took their own lives. Octavian emerged as the sole power in Rome. In 27 B.C. he was granted extraordinary powers by the Senate and took the name of Augustus, the first Emperor of Rome. Historians are in agreement that this is the point at which the history of Rome ends and the history of the Roman Empire begins. History of Roman Republic: In the late 6th century B.C., the small city-state of Rome overthrew the shackles of monarchy and created a republican government that, in theory if not always in practice, represented the wishes of its citizens. From this basis the city would go on to conquer all of the Italian peninsula and large parts of the Mediterranean world and beyond. The Republic and its institutions of government would endure for five centuries, until, wrecked by civil wars, it would transform into a Principate ruled by emperors. Even then many of the political bodies, notably the Senate, created in the Republican period would endure, albeit with a reduction in power. The years prior to the rise of the Republic are lost to myth and legend. No contemporary written history of this period has survived. Although much of this history had been lost, the Roman historian Livy (59 B.C. – 17 A.D.) was still able to write a remarkable History of Rome – 142 volumes – recounting the years of the monarchy through the fall of the Republic. Much of his history, however, especially the early years, was based purely on myth and oral accounts. Contrary to some interpretations, the fall of the monarchy and birth of the republic did not happen overnight. Some even claim it was far from bloodless. Historian Mary Beard in her SPQR wrote that the transformation from monarchy to republic was “borne over a period of decades, if not, centuries.” Prior to the overthrow of the last king, Tarquinius Superbus or Tarquin the Proud in 510 B.C., the history of the city is mired in stories of valor and war. Even the founding of the city is mostly legend and many people have preferred the myth over fact anyway. For years Rome had admired the Hellenistic culture of the Greeks, and so it easily embraced the story of Aeneas and the founding of Rome as penned by Roman author Virgil in his heroic saga The Aeneid. This story gave the Romans a link to an ancient, albeit Greek, culture. This mythical tale is about Aeneas and his followers who, with the assistance of the goddess Venus, escaped the city of Troy as it fell to the Greeks in the Trojan War. Jupiter’s wife Juno constantly interfered with the story’s hero Aeneas throughout the tale. After a brief stay in Carthage, Aeneas eventually made his way to Italy and Latium, finally fulfilling his destiny. His descendants were the twins Romulus and Remus – the illegitimate sons of Mars, the god of war, and the princess Rhea Silvia, the daughter of the true king of Alba Longa. Rescued from drowning by a she-wolf and raised by a shepherd, Romulus eventually defeated his brother in battle and founded the city of Rome, becoming its first king. So the legend goes. After Tarquin’s exit, Rome suffered from both external and internal conflict. Much of the 5th century B.C. was spent struggling, not thriving. From 510 B.C. to 275 B.C., while the government grappled with a number of internal political issues, the city grew to become the prevailing power over the entire Italian peninsula. From the Battle of Regallus (496 B.C.), where Rome was victorious over the Latins, to the Pyrrhic Wars (280 – 275 B.C.) against Pyrrhus of Epirus, Rome emerged as a dominant, warring superpower in the west. Through this expansion, the social and political structure of the Republic gradually evolved. From this simple beginning, the city would create a new government, a government that would one day dominate an area from the North Sea southward through Gaul and Germania, westward to Hispania, and eastward to Greece, Syria and North Africa. The great Mediterranean became a Roman lake. These lands would remain under the control of Rome throughout the Republic and well into the formative years of the Roman Empire. However, before it could become this dominant military force, the city had to have a stable government, and it was paramount that they avoid the possibility of one individual seizing control. In the end they would create a system exhibiting a true balance of power. Initially, after the fall of the monarchy, the Republic fell under the control of the great families – the patricians, coming from the word patres or fathers. Only these great families could hold political or religious offices. The remaining citizens or plebeians had no political authority although many of them were as wealthy as the patricians. However, much to the dismay of the patricians, this arrangement could not and would not last. Tensions between the two classes continued to grow, especially since the poorer residents of the city provided the bulk of the army. They asked themselves why they should fight in a war if all of the profits go to the wealthy. Finally, in 494 B.C. the plebeians went on strike, gathering outside Rome and refusing to move until they were granted representation; this was the famed Conflict of Orders or the First Succession of the Plebs. The strike worked, and the plebeians would be rewarded with an assembly of their own – the Concilium Plebis or Council of the Plebs. Although the government of Rome could never be considered a true democracy, it did provide many of its citizens (women excluded) with a say in how their city was ruled. Through their rebellion, the plebeians had entered into a system where power lay in a number of magistrates (the cursus honorum) and various assemblies. This executive power or imperium resided in two consuls. Elected by the Comitia Centuriata, a consul ruled for only one year, presiding over the Senate, proposing laws, and commanding the armies. Uniquely, each consul could veto the decision of the other. After his term was completed, he could become a pro-consul, governing one of the republic’s many territories, which was an appointment that could make him quite wealthy. There were several lesser magistrates: a praetor (the only other official with imperium power) who served as a judicial officer with civic and provincial jurisdiction, a quaestor who functioned as the financial administrator, and the aedile who supervised urban maintenance such as roads, water and food supplies, and the annual games and festivals. Lastly, there was the highly coveted position of censor, who held office for only 18 months. Elected every five years, he was the census taker, reviewing the list of citizens and their property. He could even remove members of the Senate for improper behavior. There was, however, one final position – the unique office of dictator. He was granted complete authority and was only named in times of emergency, usually serving for only six months. The most famous one, of course, was Julius Caesar; who was named dictator for life. Aside from the magistrates there were also a number of assemblies. These assemblies were the voice of the people (male citizens only), thereby allowing for the opinions of some to be heard. Foremost of all the assemblies was the Roman Senate (a remnant of the old monarchy). Although unpaid, Senators served for life unless they were removed by a censor for public or private misconduct. While this body had no true legislative power, serving only as advisors to the consul and later the emperor, they still wielded considerable authority. They could propose laws as well as oversee foreign policy, civic administration, and finances. Power to enact laws, however, was given to a number of popular assemblies. All of the Senate’s proposals had to be approved by either of two popular assemblies: the Comitia Centuriata, who not only enacted laws but also elected consuls and declared war, and the Concilium Plebis, who conveyed the wishes of the plebeians via their elected tribunes. These assemblies were divided into blocks and each of these blocks voted as a unit. Aside from these two major legislative bodies, there were also a number of smaller tribal assemblies. The Concilium Plebis came into existence as a result of the Conflict of Orders – a conflict between the plebeians and patricians for political power. In the Concilium Plebis, aside from passing laws pertinent to the wishes of the plebeians, the members elected a number of tribunes who spoke on their behalf. Although this “Council of the Plebs” initially gave the plebeians some voice in government, it did not prove to be sufficient. In 450 B.C. the Twelve Tables were enacted in order to appease a number of plebian concerns. It became the first recorded Roman law code. The Tables tackled domestic problems with an emphasis on both family life and private property. For instance, plebeians were not only prohibited from imprisonment for debt but also granted the right to appeal a magistrate’s decision. Later, plebeians were even allowed to marry patricians and become consuls. Over time the rights of the plebeians continued to increase. In 287 B.C. the Lex Hortensia declared that all laws passed by the Concilium Plebis were binding to both plebeians and patricians. This unique government allowed the Republic to grow far beyond the city’s walls. Victory in the three Punic Wars (264 – 146 B.C.) waged against Carthage was the first step of Rome growing beyond the confines of the peninsula. After years of war and the embarrassment of defeat at the hands of Hannibal, the Senate finally followed the advice of the outspoken Cato the Elder who said “Carthago delenda est!” or “Carthage must be destroyed!” Rome’s destruction of the city after the Battle of Zama in 146 B.C. and the defeat of the Greeks in the four Macedonian Wars established the Republic as a true Mediterranean power. The submission of the Greeks brought the rich Hellenistic culture to Rome, that is its art, philosophy and literature. Unfortunately, despite the growth of the Republic, the Roman government was never meant to run an empire. According to historian Tom Holland in his Rubicon, the Republic always seemed to be on the brink of political collapse. The old agrarian economy could not and would not be successfully transferred and only further broadened the gap between the rich and poor. Rome, however, was more than just a warrior state. At home Romans believed in the importance of the family and the value of religion. They also believed that citizenship or civitas defined what it meant to be truly civilized. This concept of citizenship would soon be put to the test when the Roman territories began to challenge Roman authority. However, this constant state of war had not only made the Republic wealthy but it also helped mold its society. After the Macedonian Wars, the influence of the Greeks affected both Roman culture and religion. Under this Greek influence, the traditional Roman gods transformed. In Rome an individual’s personal expression of belief was unimportant, only a strict adherence to a rigid set of rituals, avoiding the dangers of religious fervor. Temples honoring these gods would be built throughout the empire. Elsewhere in Rome the division of the classes could best be seen within the city walls in the tenements. Rome was a refuge to many people who left the surrounding towns and farms seeking a better way of life. However, an unfulfilled promise of jobs forced many people to live in the poorer parts of the city. The jobs they sought were often not there, resulting in an epidemic of homeless inhabitants. While many of the wealthier citizens resided on Palatine Hill, others lived in ramshackle apartments that were over-crowded and extremely dangerous – many lived in constant fear of fire and collapse. Although the lower floors of these buildings contained shops and more suitable housing, the upper floors were for the poorer residents, there was no access for natural light, no running water, and no toilets. The streets were poorly lit and since there was no police force, crime was rampant. Refuse, even human waste, was routinely dumped onto the streets, not only causing a terrible stench but served as a breeding ground for disease. All of this added to an already disgruntled populace. This continuing struggle between the have and have nots would remain until the Republic finally collapsed. However, there were those in power who tried to find a solution to the existing problems. In the 2nd century B.C., two brothers, both tribunes, tried but failed to make the necessary changes. Among a number of reform proposals, Tiberius Gracchus suggested to give land to both the unemployed and small farmers. Of course, the Senate, many of whom were large landowners, vehemently objected. Even the Concilium Plebis rejected the idea. Although his suggestion eventually became law, it could not be enforced. Riots soon followed and 300 people, including Tiberius, were killed. Unfortunately, a similar destiny awaited his brother. While Gaius Gracchus also supported the land distribution idea, his fate was sealed when he proposed to give citizenship to all Roman allies. Like his big brother, his proposals met with considerable resistance. 3,000 of his supporters were killed and he chose suicide. The failure of the brothers to achieve some balance in Rome would be one of a number of indicators that the Republic was doomed to fall. Later, another Roman would rise to initiate a series of reforms. Sulla and his army marched on Rome and seized power, defeating his enemy Gaius Marius. Assuming power in 88 B.C., Sulla quickly defeated King Mithridates of Pontus in the East, crushed the Samnites with the help of the generals Pompey and Crassus, purged the Roman Senate (80 were killed or exiled), reorganized the law courts, and enacted a number of reforms. He retired peacefully in 79 B.C. Unlike the Empire, the Republic would not collapse due to any external threat but instead fell to an internal menace. It came from the inability of the Republic to adjust to a constantly expanding empire. Even the ancient Sibylline prophecies predicted that failure would come internally, not by foreign invaders. There were a number of these internal warnings. The demand of the Roman allies for citizenship was one sign of this unrest – the so-called Social Wars of the 1st century B.C. (90 – 88 B.C.). For years the Roman allies had paid tribute and provided soldiers for war but were not considered citizens. Like their plebian kindred years earlier, they wanted representation. It took a rebellion for things to change. Although the Senate had warned the Roman citizens that awarding these people citizenship would be dangerous, full citizenship was finally granted to all people (slaves excluded) in the entire Italian peninsula. Later, Julius Caesar would extend citizenship beyond Italy and grant it to the people of Spain and Gaul. About this time the city witnessed a serious threat to its very survival when Marcus Tillius Cicero, the Roman statesman and poet, uncovered a conspiracy led by the Roman senator Lucius Sergius Catiline to overthrow the Roman government. Cicero also believed that the Republic was declining due to moral decay. Problems such as this together with fear and unrest came to the attention of three men in 60 B.C.: Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Crassus had gained fame by his defeat of Spartacus and his followers in 71 B.C. Pompey had distinguished himself in Spain as well as in the East. Caesar had proven himself as an able commander. Together, the three men formed what historians have named the First Triumvirate or Gang of Three. For almost a decade they controlled both consulships and military commands. After Caesar left the office of consul in 59 B.C., he and his army moved northward into Gaul and Germania. Pompey became the governor of Spain (although he ruled from Rome) while Crassus sought fame in the east where, unfortunately for him, he was eventually defeated and killed at the Battle of Carrhae. Growing tension between Pompey and Caesar escalated. Pompey was jealous of Caesar’s success and fame while Caesar wanted a return to politics. Eventually these differences brought them to battle, and in 48 B.C. they met at Pharsalus. Pompey was defeated, escaping to Egypt where he was killed by Ptolemy XIII. Caesar fulfilled his destiny by securing both the eastern provinces and northern Africa, returning to Rome a hero only to be declared dictator for life. Many of his enemies, as well as several allies, saw his new position as a serious threat to the foundation of the Republic, and despite a number of popular reforms, his assassination on the Ides of March in 44 B.C. brought the Republic to its knees. His heir and step-son Octavian subdued Mark Antony, eventually becoming the first emperor of Rome as Augustus. The Republic was gone and in its ashes rose the Roman Empire. History of Imperial Rome: The Roman Empire, at its height (circa 117 A.D.), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. By 285 A.D. the empire had grown too vast to be ruled from the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian (284-305 A.D.) into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar (27 B.C.-14 A.D.) became the first emperor of Rome and ended, in the West, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (476 A.D.). In the East, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 A.D. The influence of the Roman Empire on western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of western culture. Following the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C., Gaius Octavian Thurinus, Julius Caesar’s nephew and heir, became the first emperor of Rome and took the name Augustus Caesar. Although Julius Caesar is often regarded as the first emperor of Rome, this is incorrect; he never held the title “Emperor” but, rather, “Dictator”, a title the senate could not help but grant him, as Caesar held supreme military and political power at the time. In contrast, the senate willingly granted Augustus the title of emperor, lavishing praise and power on him because he had destroyed Rome’s enemies and brought much needed stability. Augustus ruled the empire from 31 B.C. until 14 A.D. when he died. In that time, as he said himself, he “found Rome a city of clay but left it a city of marble.” Augustus reformed the laws of the city and, by extension, the empire’s, secured Rome’s borders, initiated vast building projects (carried out largely by his faithful general Agrippa, who built the first Pantheon), and secured the empire a lasting name as one of the greatest, if not the greatest, political and cultural powers in history. The Pax Romana (Roman Peace), also known as the Pax Augusta, which he initiated, was a time of peace and prosperity hitherto unknown and would last over 200 years. Following Augustus’ death, power passed to his heir, Tiberius, who continued many of the emperor’s policies but lacked the strength of character and vision which so defined Augustus. This trend would continue, more or less steadily, with the emperors who followed: Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. These first five rulers of the empire are referred to as the Julio-Claudian Dynasty for the two family names they descended from (either by birth or through adoption), Julius and Claudius. Although Caligula has become notorious for his depravity and apparent insanity, his early rule was commendable as was that of his successor, Claudius, who expanded Rome’s power and territory in Britain; less so was that of Nero. Caligula and Claudius were both assassinated in office (Caligula by his Praetorian Guard and Claudius, apparently, by his wife). Nero’s suicide ended the Julio-Claudian Dynasty and initiated the period of social unrest known as The Year of the Four Emperors. These four rulers were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian. Following Nero’s suicide in 68 A.D., Galba assumed rule (69 A.D.) and almost instantly proved unfit for the responsibility. He was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard. Otho succeeded him swiftly on the very day of his death, and ancient records indicate he was expected to make a good emperor. General Vitellius, however, sought power for himself and so initiated the brief civil war which ended in Otho’s suicide and Vitellius’ ascent to the throne. Vitellius proved no more fit to rule than Galba had been, as he almost instantly engaged in luxurious entertainments and feasts at the expense of his duties. The legions declared for General Vespasian as emperor and marched on Rome. Vitellius was murdered by Vespasian’s men, and Vespasian took power exactly one year from the day Galba had first ascended to the throne. Vespasian founded the Flavian Dynasty which was characterized by massive building projects, economic prosperity, and expansion of the empire. Vespasian ruled from 69-79 A.D., and in that time, initiated the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre (the famous Coliseum of Rome) which his son Titus (ruled 79-81 A.D.) would complete. Titus’ early reign saw the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. which buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Ancient sources are universal in their praise for his handling of this disaster as well as the great fire of Rome in 80 A.D. Titus died of a fever in 81 A.D. and was succeeded by his brother Domitian who ruled from 81-96 A.D. Domitian expanded and secured the boundaries of Rome, repaired the damage to the city caused by the great fire, continued the building projects initiated by his brother, and improved the economy of the empire. Even so, his autocratic methods and policies made him unpopular with the Roman Senate, and he was assassinated in 96 A.D. Domitian’s successor was his advisor Nerva who founded the Nervan-Antonin Dynasty which ruled Rome 96-192 A.D. This period is marked by increased prosperity owing to the rulers known as The Five Good Emperors of Rome. Between 96 and 180 A.D., five exceptional men ruled in sequence and brought the Roman Empire to its height: Nerva (96-98), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180). Under their leadership, the Roman Empire grew stronger, more stable, and expanded in size and scope. Lucius Verus and Commodus are the last two of the Nervan-Antonin Dynasty. Verus was co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death in 169 A.D. and seems to have been fairly ineffective. Commodus, Aurelius’ son and successor, was one of the most disgraceful emperors Rome ever saw and is universally depicted as indulging himself and his whims at the expense of the empire. He was strangled by his wrestling partner in his bath in 192 A.D., ending the Nervan-Antonin Dynasty and raising the prefect Pertinax (who most likely engineered Commodus’ assassination) to power. Pertinax governed for only three months before he was assassinated. He was followed, in rapid succession, by four others in the period known as The Year of the Five Emperors, which culminated in the rise of Septimus Severus to power. Severus ruled Rome from 193-211 A.D., founded the Severan Dynasty, defeated the Parthians, and expanded the empire. His campaigns in Africa and Britain were extensive and costly and would contribute to Rome’s later financial difficulties. He was succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta, until Caracalla had his brother murdered. Caracalla ruled until 217 A.D., when he was assassinated by his bodyguard. It was under Caracalla’s reign that Roman citizenship was expanded to include all free men within the empire. This law was said to have been enacted as a means of raising tax revenue, simply because, after its passage, there were more people the central government could tax. The Severan Dynasty continued, largely under the guidance and manipulation of Julia Maesa (referred to as `empress’), until the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 A.D. which plunged the empire into the chaos known as The Crisis of the Third Century (lasting from 235-284 A.D.). This period, also known as The Imperial Crisis, was characterized by constant civil war, as various military leaders fought for control of the empire. The crisis has been further noted by historians for widespread social unrest, economic instability (fostered, in part, by the devaluation of Roman currency by the Severans), and, finally, the dissolution of the empire which broke into three separate regions. The empire was reunited by Aurelian (270-275 A.D.) whose policies were further developed and improved upon by Diocletian who established the Tetrarchy (the rule of four) to maintain order throughout the empire. Even so, the empire was still so vast that Diocletian divided it in half in 285 A.D. to facilitate more efficient administration. In so doing, he created the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire). Since a leading cause of the Imperial Crisis was a lack of clarity in succession, Diocletian decreed that successors must be chosen and approved from the outset of an individual’s rule. Two of these successors were the generals Maxentius and Constantine. Diocletian voluntarily retired from rule in 305 A.D., and the tetrarchy dissolved as rival regions of the empire vied with each other for dominance. Following Diocletian’s death in 311 A.D., Maxentius and
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